About the Entry
In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Below is an academic paper I wrote for ‘Mysticism
in the Great Traditions’, a module from the Study of Religions. This formed
part of the second discipline to my Joint Honours BA in History and Study of
Religions. The discourse and views expressed, herein below, are of an academic
nature and may not necessarily appeal to every reader. That said, it should be
noted that this attempt is not absolute, for scholars and academics have
written on this subject for over a millennium. To claim that one has achieved a
final definition or analysis on a matter is evidence of one’s ignorance. As
such, I for one, cannot and would not make such a claim.
As this is an academic paper, there are certain
assumptions that have to be considered when reading. Questions are welcomed,
however, they must be related to the material covered.
Any err belongs only to me.
Any truth belongs solely to He.
Jazākallāh khair.
Mohammad Aasim Mirza
#hqmaasim
 |
| @hqmaasim |
Presenting the Field:
An Introduction
According to the Islamic mystical tradition (taṣawwuf), once a general practitioner (mutaṣawwif) accomplishes ‘annihilation
in spiritual master’ (fanā fi ‘l-shaykh),
‘annihilation in Messenger’ (fanā fi
‘l-rasūl) and, annihilation in God (fanā
fi ‘l-Lāh), he reaches the rank of an accomplished practitioner (walī).[1] In
some instances, an accomplished practitioner also attains ‘grace’ (karāmah) from God and is granted the
ability to perform various miracles (karāmah).
This in itself is a mystical experience. As, ‘[…] mystical states seem to those
who experience them to be also states of knowledge’,[2]
they would then attempt to convey this knowledge to others by means of
persuasion. Herein lies the problem. Miracles are an anomaly and in order to
persuade others of its existence requires participation. However, as the
current field of study is critically undefined, no two participants can
possibly claim that they have encountered the same feeling which means that
participation is not possible. It means, although we know what it is we seek to
analyse, there is nothing tangible that allows a physical interaction with the
subject. All we have is theory. With these considerations in mind, this paper
does not seek to prove or disprove the miraculous phenomena that may or may not
exist in the Islamic mystical tradition, rather it serves to analyse the
primary sources that discuss the existence of such mystical occurrences. In
order to achieve critical analysis I shall refer to the Qur’ān, Tradition (ḥadīth), exegeses (tafāsīr, sing. tafsīr),
and Ṣūfī manuals, and observe their treatment of four very interrelated
concepts: i) the Islamic mystical tradition (taṣawwuf); ii) sainthood (wilāyah);
iii) attaining grace (karāmah) from God; and iv) miracles (karāmāt) as a form of mystical
experience. It will be concluded that there exists some understanding concerning
the validity of miraculous, mystical experiences amongst some Islamic
scholarship. They suggest that although prophethood and messengership are no
longer open, miraculous occurrences can still occur at the hand of an
accomplished spiritualist (walī). These spiritualists are
considered vicegerents (khulafāʾ) of the
Prophet Muḥammad and carry out duties of spiritual nature. They do not innovate
new laws, except that they teach willing disciples how to ultimately connect
with God. They are thus responsible for upholding the sanctity and purity of
Islam, and act as centres of morality, ethics and are examples of abstinence
from worldly desires.
Defining the Field:
Understanding the Term Taṣawwuf
The word taṣawwuf
is an Arabic term that has a profound association with the discipline of
spirituality. The word is derived from the triliteral root of ṣ-w-f (ṣūf) and has various meanings: to
abstain, to subdue, to bow, to wear or
sell wool, etc.[3] are all definitions that
exist in the Arabic lexicon and have been connected to spirituality by way of
metaphorical association. Perhaps abstaining from worldly desires is
spirituality, or the subduing of one’s self (nafs) and bowing in humility is spirituality, or even voluntarily
accepting difficulty, such as wearing wool can be understood as the requisites
of the path of spirituality.[4] That
said, however, these are just isolated lexical definitions that may or may not
expose the subtler nuances that exist in the Islamic spiritual tradition. It is
not peculiar then that there is, in fact, no universal definition that may
define spirituality exactly. Early ṣūfī masters,
however, have helped establish a clearer understanding of what spirituality may
be. As such, ʿAlī Hujverī (d. 1077CE) writes:
“Consequently, in defining taṣawwuf each person has presented his own subtle definition, yet
these are all lexical definitions and have no connection with its true meaning.
Cleanliness (ṣafā) is praised in
everything and its opposite is uncleanliness (kadūrah), as the Messenger of Allāh said, “[As] the cleanliness of
the world goes, its filth remains.” Praising something is its uniqueness and
its condemnation is its other. As those in this state (taṣawwuf) have corrected their character and relations with others
and have achieved inherent and outward abstinence, they are referred to as ṣūfī.”[5]
In this excerpt, Hujverī touches on three things:
firstly, by referring to the term ṣafā,
he suggests that spirituality is a matter of attaining cleanliness, as is
mentioned in a Prophetic Tradition (ḥadīth
al-nabawī), “Cleanliness is half of faith.”[6]
This cleanliness, however, is not simply related to the outward, physical body
of the human being, as correction of character is a matter that pertains to the
process of inward purification. Although establishing and maintaining relations
with one another seems like an extrinsic, worldly and physical act, it does
inherently share an inward quality with moral correction. That is, if one is
not kind and just to others, he is morally corrupted. Finally, Huvjerī states a
ṣūfī observes inward and outward
abstinence, i.e. the inward desires that relate to sexual lust and the lust of
hunger, and the outward that pertain to matters relating to appearance and
remaining in a state of voluntary poverty (faqr).
Whilst discussing the term taṣawwuf
in the context of other ṣūfīs,
Hujverī adds:
‘Junayd said, “Taṣawwuf
is a characteristic in which man is established.” Someone asked him, “Is this a
characteristic of God or man?” He replied, “In reality it is a characteristic
of God and outwardly it is a characteristic of man.” In reality, the
annihilation of the characteristics of man is the essence of taṣawwuf as the annihilation of the self
is indicative of God’s everlasting character.’[7]
Here
Junayd al-Baghdādī (d. 910CE) mentions two important aspects of spirituality. He
first suggests that the essence of spirituality resides in God and as Hujverī
earlier states, spirituality is dependent upon cleanliness. That the word for cleanliness
in Arabic is ṭahārāh which is literally
translated to mean ‘purity’,[8]
directly implies that God is Pure from all that is impure (najas). This is why, although the Qur’ān [2:20] states, ‘[…]
Indeed, Allah is over all things competent.’ it is blasphemous for a believer
to associate any immoral, unjust and corrupt acts with God, and this forms part
of the Muslim creed, “God does what He wants yet is never iniquitous.”[9] Hence,
the reality of spirituality is connected directly with God. In explaining what
al-Baghdādī said, Hujverī adds that in order for man to achieve the essence of
spirituality he must annihilate his own characteristics, and in saying this
touches upon an essential focus in spirituality: the process of annihilation.
The
process of annihilation (fanāʾ)
begins immediately after one’s initiation (bayʿah)
into a spiritual order (silsilah) and
there are three distinct processes: i) ‘annihilation in spiritual master’ (fanā fi ‘l-shaykh); ii) ‘annihilation in Messenger’ (fanā fi ‘l-rasūl); and iii) ‘annihilation in God’ (fanā fi ‘l-Lāh). Concerning the first
step of annihilation, Muḥammad ʿĀshiq writes:
“When the seeker of truth follows the command of
his spiritual master he first completes annihilation in existence (fanāʾ fi ‘l-wujūd) and, after this,
annihilation in spiritual master begins. It should be considered when masters
initiate someone in their order, the one initiated immediately passes
annihilation in existence […] the disciple is then taught how to maintain focus
on his master as when this connection is established it is maintained in both
directions. Once the master places specific attention on his disciple, the
latter’s lust and desires for this world begin to fade away and the veils
between him and God’s manifestations begin to fall.”[10]
The
second step concerns itself with the annihilation of one’s self in the
Messenger Muḥammad. A disciple may only commence this process after he has
completed the first step and this may require years of dedication and
commitment to a spiritual master. Upon successful completion, the spiritual
master will then guide his disciple and teach him how to appreciate and love Muḥammad
as the scriptures have instructed. This instruction does not wholly rely on
scripture, it may also be voluntary and innovative methods may also be employed,
as is related about Aways al-Qaranī, who in love of the Prophet Muḥammad
removed all his teeth hearing that the former had lost a tooth in battle.[11]
Although Islamic law (sharīʿah) does
not prescribe such actions, it does not prohibit them either. As such, concerning
the second step ʿĀshiq further writes:
“[…]
it is a rule that whenever a product is praised, in reality it is the
manufacturer that is receiving the praise. Similarly, loving the Prophet (upon
him salutations and peace) is, in fact, praising God. This is why God raises
the ranks of those who send salutations and peace upon the Prophet. The
Prophetic Tradition is witness, “No one is a believer until he loves me more
than he does his father, children and all of humanity.” Thus loving him more
than humanity is an indication of his faith. When a person loves the Prophet,
the scholars (ʿulamāʾ) place him in
either of three ranks: i) intimacy (uns);
ii) endearment (ḥubb); and iii) love
(ʿishq). Whoever reaches the third
rank, reaches completeness in faith.”
What ʿĀshiq touches upon here is something the
Qur’ān advocates on numerous occasions, ‘Follow Allāh and follow His
messenger.’ There is also another instance in the Qur’ān [3:31] which states,
‘Say, [O Muhammad], “If you should love Allāh, then follow me, [so] Allāh will
love you and forgive you your sins. And Allāh is Forgiving and Merciful.” The
word of interest here is ‘follow’ (ittibāʿ).
In the Arabic lexicon, various root words are connected to one another either
by the characteristics of their letters (ṣifātu
‘l-ḥurūf) or their point of origin (makhāriju
‘l-ḥurūf). This means that although they may look different and even sound
different, one can make an analogous interpretation in order to make sense of the
text at hand. As such, the term ittibāʿ is
from the root t-b-ʿ and is closely
related to the word ṭ-b-ʿ. Whereas
the former means ‘to follow’ the latter means ‘nature’. Thus in order to follow
someone, one must bring it within their nature to do so and in this context, this
nature is associated directly with love of the Prophet Muḥammad, as stated in
the Prophetic Tradition above. According to this verse then, if one claims to
follow Muḥammad, one must make it part of their nature to love him, and it must
be love that surpasses all other loves as the Qur’ān [9:24] states:
Say, [O Muhammad], “If your fathers, your sons,
your brothers, your wives, your relatives, wealth which you have obtained,
commerce wherein you fear decline, and dwellings with which you are pleased are
more beloved to you than Allah and His Messenger and struggling in His cause,
then wait until Allah executes His command. And Allah does not guide the
defiantly disobedient people.”
Once one attains this level successfully, the final
step is to annihilate one’s self in God. This is not considered to be distinct
from the first two processes of annihilation, in fact, this complete process
should be considered as a matter of accumulating one’s self-worth in order to
attain the highest rank in spirituality. Concerning the matter of annihilation
in God, ʿĀshiq writes:
“[…] one who struggled [in spirituality (taṣawwuf)], found his path towards God.
And it is written, whoever finds the path to God, attains the following
characteristics: to speak less, to eat less and to sleep less. These are the
qualities of one who annihilates himself in God.”[12]
Thus one who is on the path of annihilation in God
does not speak, unless he speaks about God; he does not eat, except that which
is necessary to survive and worship God; and he does not sleep except to remove
fatigue so that he may worship God for longer. A point of focus for those who
are in this final process is their intention. They continuously battle the
desire to worship God for the sake of attaining a better hereafter, i.e. their
intention is to please God through devotional acts irrespective of the outcome
in this world or the next and in doing so they are able to avoid detection from
the angels (kirāman kātibīn) that
record their deeds as upon reaching this state they are able to communicate
with God in metaphysical gestures. Henceforth, any act is not his but with the
permission of God, as the Divine Tradition (ḥadīth
al-qudsī) states:
“[…] My slave does not cease to draw near to Me
with the supererogatory worship until I love him. So, when I love him, I become
his hearing with which he hears, his sight with which he sees, his hand with
which he strikes and his foot with which he walks.”[13]
What is understood from here is that once a person
annihilates himself in God, he begins to experience the world from another dimension.
Arguably, a Divine dimension. This is the beginning of sainthood (wilāyah) and also the point where God
bestows Grace (karāmah) upon the spiritualist.
Understanding the Field:
Towards an Understanding of
Sainthood (wilāyah)
and
the concept of Grace (karāmah)
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Usually, the term saint (walī) is used interchangeably with spiritualist (ṣūfī), however, there are some scholars
that define them separately and in order to establish a richer understanding of
this discourse, one should consequently observe them respectively. Thus far
various definitions of spirituality (taṣawwuf)
have been visited, both lexically and contextually. What has been understood
then is that a spiritualist (mutaṣawwif)
actively seeks out a life that requires voluntary abstinence of inward and
outwardly desires of this world. It also requires annihilation in three stages.
Once acquired, the spiritualist possesses a favoured relationship with God that
which is selfless and unassuming of what may be awarded by God in the
hereafter. Thus the sole purpose of such a spiritualist is to focus the
intention of his worship on the pleasure of God, imagining that either a) he is
standing in front of God during worship, or b) that he stands and God is
watching, hence intensifying his spiritual relationship with God. This is not
an uncommon concept in mainstream Islam, for the Prophetic Tradition, commonly
known as the ‘Tradition of Gabriel’ (ḥadīth
jibrāʾīl) instructs its reader to the idea of iḥsān.[14]
This is an Arabic term suggesting that if one were to do something, they are
‘to do it beautifully’. That the Tradition defines iḥsān as worship of God in either of the two aforementioned states
– a) and b) – is indicative of the importance the Prophet Muḥammad himself
placed on one’s constant connection with God. Spirituality then, is a means of
attaining this connection and the accomplished spiritualist (walī) is one who has successfully
established such a connection.
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The Qur’ān [16:80]
only uses ṣ-w-f once in the plural
form (aṣwāfihā) but does so in a
context unrelated to the spirituality that is being discussed in this paper.
However, the Qur’ān does use the term walī
in its plural form (awliyāʾ) and
it is here that exegetes discuss the concept of sainthood (wilāyah). As such, the Qur’ān [10:62] states, “Behold! Verily on
the friends of Allah there is no fear, nor shall they grieve.” The term friends
(awliyāʾ) is derived from the
triliteral root w-l-y (walī) and shares its meaning with other
derivatives. Some of the possible associated meanings are: to befriend, to be close, to love, to take responsibility and to help.[15] Each of these
lexical definitions relate closely to the concept of accomplished spirituality
that scholars refer to as a wilāyah. He
is one who befriends God and does so by attaining closeness to Him through
love. He thus takes responsibility of his position by helping others to find
guidance and establish a connection with the Prophet Muḥammad and eventually to
God Himself. That said, there do exist more contextual definitions that
scholars use, as is evident from a commentary of the aforementioned verse.
Thanāʾ Ullāh Pānī Pattī writes:
“According to the spiritualists (ṣūfiyyah) the least ranked spiritualist
upon whom the term walī is applicable
is one whose heart is forever involved in God. He is involved, day and night in
proclaiming the purity of God and is forever engrossed in the love of God and no
other, whether it be his father, son, brother, wife or any other member of his
family. If he does love another he does so only for the sake of God, if he
gives, it is for the sake of God. According to the spiritualists this is known
as annihilation of the heart (fanāʾ
al-qalb). The inward and outward of a walī
is involved in constant fear of God and steadfastness (taqwā). He strictly refrains from those actions that are disliked
by God. He safeguards himself from major and minor polytheism, in fact, he
avoids even the polytheism that is lower than the sound of an ant’s crawling
[…] when one reaches this stage, Satan surrenders his weapons to him and
becomes obedient.”[16]
Although some argue that a ṣūfī and a walī are but two
terms denoting the same thing, it is clear from the above excerpt that even the
lowest ranking walī has already
achieved what the ṣūfī strives for.
Furthermore, the latter may only attain the rank of the former if he passes all
three processes of annihilation whereas the walī
has already achieved success in this field. It may be questioned that the
vocation of the walī seems similar to
that of the ṣūfī but the former
possesses a connection that the latter does not. For instance, God does not
refer to a ṣūfī in the aforementioned
verse, He refers to awliyāʾ, i.e. those
who have attained His friendship and in an attempt to diminish such confusion,
the term walī is then understood in a
new dimension one that involves spirituality at its core but recognised in the
form of friendship. The ṣūfī on the
other hand, is merely a spiritualist seeking that friendship.
It has been mentioned earlier that the one who
struggles for God is thereby loved by Him. Such a person then does not act on
self-impulse but rather does that which God inspires him to do so.[17]
This is also considered the moment where God bestows his Grace (karāmah) upon the spiritualist. One of
the more obvious forms of Grace is the ability to perform miracles. The term karāmah is derived from karam which may be translated as
follows: to be special, unique, to be
anointed and to be graced.[18] Thus
one who is granted Grace by God belongs to the unique category of spiritualists
who have been anointed by Him. Exactly what they are capable of is not clearly
defined as miraculous, mystical experiences may vary from one saint to another.
Despite these lexical definitions, the term karāmah
(miracle) does enjoy a more established meaning one which became
crystallised in later ṣūfī manuals as
well as earlier theological texts.[19]
The concept of saintly miracles then is not discussed independently from
prophetic miracles. In fact, the former is defined as a sub-category of the
latter suggesting that if the latter did not exist neither would the former.
And so, the term for prophetic miracles is muʾjizah
(from the triliteral root, ʿ-j-z)
meaning to make one surrender, or to make one helpless.[20] The understanding
here is that the prophetic miracle is such an occurrence, it renders the
intellect helpless and prevents one to understand how a miraculous act has
occurred. Before analysing evidence for the possible existence of saintly
miracles from primary sources, it would be useful to chronologically list the
various categories of miracles that scholars discuss. Thus irhāṣ is a miracle that is performed at the hand of a prophet or
messenger who has not yet announced his prophethood or messengership. A
miraculous act that occurs after a prophet or messenger announces his
prophethood or messengership is called a muʿjizah.
The term karāmah is one that is applied
to miraculous acts performed by saints, whereas maʿūnah is a miracle that may occur at the hands of an ordinary
believer (however, this is rare). An unexplainable, miraculous act that occurs
at the hand of a non-Muslim, in their favour is known as istidrāj and when it goes against them is known as ihānah.[21]
It is thus karāmah that is of primary
concern here.
According to a majority of Islamic scholarship, a karāmah is “An unusual, unnatural act
that occurs at the hand of a perfect believer with the condition that he
follows the laws of the Prophet Muḥammad.”[22]
The occurrence of miracles (karāmāt)
is not a uniquely post-Islamic phenomenon, in fact the Qur’ān itself refers to
several chronicles that discuss miraculous acts occurring at the hands of both
men and women. What is interesting is that Muslim scholars will use these occurrences
as precedent to prove the legitimacy and existence of miracles that belong to
the post-Islamic period. The Qur’ān [27:40] states, ‘One with whom was knowledge
of the Scripture said, “I will bring it to you within the twinkling of an eye!”’
This verse refers to an event where Sulaymān (Solomon) asked who could bring
the throne of Bilqīs (Queen Sheba) the quickest. A species of jinn known as the
ʿifrīt, considered to be the
strongest of jinns, was deemed too slow whilst ʿĀṣif bin Burkhiyā was able to
transport the throne at an unrivalled speed. Pānī Pattī writes:
“Majority of scholars have made it clear that he
[the one who the verse is referring to] was ʿĀṣif bin Burkhiyā, who had
attained the level of ṣiddīqiyyah. He
possessed the knowledge of the Great Name of God (al-ismu ‘l-aʿẓam) and when he supplicated God with this name, He
would accept his supplication and grant him what he sought.”[23]
The level of ṣiddīqiyyah
is to be considered higher, if not the same, as a walī, for its lexical meaning determines that a ṣiddīq is one who is ‘the most truthful’
and as its triliteral root is related to the concept of ‘friendship’, we can
understand a ṣiddīq to be one who is
‘the most truthful in friendship’.[24]
That is, in his friendship with God. The matter of concern here, however, is
not the title awarded to ʿĀṣif bin Burkhiyā, rather what he was able to do
through his knowledge of scripture and the closeness of God he attained through
this knowledge. He as a mere human being was able to do what other beings,
whether human or not, were not able to do so. It is said he would go into
prostration and chant the Great Name of God and whatever he supplicated for was
granted to him. This is understood as a miracle that is performed through a
mystical experience.
Miracles (karāmāt) as a
Form of Mystical Experience
It is held that nothing, let alone saintly miracles,
may occur without the permission of God.[25]
Thus any miracle that is performed at the hand of a saint is achieved only
through mystical experience and it is the connection the saint establishes with
God that is considered to be the mystical element. Through our analysis of the
concepts of taṣawwuf, wilāyah and karāmah so far, it is clear that the accomplished spiritualist (walī) has a continuous relationship with
God. This continuous relationship is not merely one way as the Qur’ān [2:152]
states, “So remember Me, I will remember you. And be grateful to Me and do not
deny Me.” This verse is supported by a Divine Tradition that states:
‘I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am. I am
with him when he mentions Me. If he mentions Me to himself, I mention him to
Myself; and if he mentions Me in an assembly, I mention him in an assembly
greater than it. If he draws near to Me a hand’s length, I draw near to him an
arm’s length. And if he comes to Me walking, I go to him rushing.’”[26]
There exists then a two way relationship between
God and walī that allows the latter
to transcend physical boundaries and defy what is otherwise restricted by
logical induction and deduction. The miracle is deemed as a form of mystical
experience whether a walī performs a
miracle at his free will or by supplication. An example of the former walī is found in many personalities,
namely the Sultan of Saints, ʿAbdu ‘l-Qādir al-Jīlānī who has been recorded to
perform various miracles at his own leisure.[27]
Although it may seem that they are not connected with God at this moment as
they do not chant or supplicate, it is that their hearts are in constant
remembrance of God that allows them to defy the norms of performing miracles. This
constant remembrance strengthens the connection between saint and God, and
allows for the veils between the known and the unknown (ghayb) to be lifted which
makes them privy to esoteric knowledge that is otherwise lost on others:
“When you seek God truthfully and sincerely, then
He will grant you an inward mirror that will disclose the mysteries of this
world and the next […] He, God, gifts the saint the knowledge of the hidden
states and intentions that reside within others’ hearts […] thus he is given
the ability to command (taṣarruf)
what is upon this world and attains whatever he so desires.”[28]
This excerpt emphatically implies that irrespective
of what capabilities a spiritualist may possess it may only be achieved through
mystical experience. Whether this experience is constant or intermittent is
irrespective. Furthermore, it is not a compulsion for a saint to disclose his
miracles, in fact, some consider it impermissible to do so as disclosing
miracles is not a pre or post-requisite of sainthood.[29] Furthermore,
it is argued that some accomplished spiritualists are, in fact, unaware that
they have attained such a connection with God. Some spiritualists also consider
that miracles are an interference and will cause their egos to break the
connection they have with God, and so, avoid believing in the possibility of
any miraculous occurrences.[30]
Concluding the Field:
Untying the Ṣūfī from the Walī
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In conclusion, it is clear from this paper that
there are Muslim scholars, especially from the formative and classical periods,
that accept that saintly miracles have existed even in pre-Islamic times. That
this is reflected in various primary sources, and post-Islamic sources are
strengthened by their reference, is indicative of a spiritual tradition that is
not bound by a fourteen century period. Saintly miracles are performed with the
permission of God and this permission may be sought either exoterically by
means of supplication or chanting, or esoterically by means of establishing a
constant connection with God. This latter connection is established through the
three stage process of annihilation which once completed results in a mere ṣūfī, attaining the level of wilāyah, i.e. friendship with God. This
is not to say that those who do not belong to this rank (mansab) are incapable of performing a miracle, they may do so if
God desires. However, this is not Grace (karāmah)
it is considered more a Gift (faḍal)
from God which every believer is entitled to. The ability to engage in
miraculous mystical experiences, at will, requires a constant connection with
God which as Pānī Pattī writes, is a state that is unique to the accomplished
spiritualist. Furthermore, saintly miracles are considered as extensions of
prophetic miracles, except there is no compulsion to perform miracles in the
former’s case. Finally, that these miracles are privately and publicly
performed, and are recorded by disciples, acts as a means of the latter’s
encouragement. Spiritualists responsible for miracles are thus also considered
as an exemplar of steadfastness, morality and ethical correctness. They act as
inward and outward vicegerents to the Prophet Muḥammad, inviting others to
connect to God through a peaceful medium. It is considered, if saints can
attain such favour with God through abstinence of inward and outwardly desires,
then others too can find success on this spiritual journey and become ultimately
connected with God.
|
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[1] M. Ashiq, Tadhkiratu ‘l-Ṣāliḥīn, Karchi (1975).
[2] W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, Kansas
(2007), p. 214.
[4] A. Hujveri, Kashfu ‘l-Maḥjūb, Lahore (2003), p. 38.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Y. Nawawī, Matnu ‘l-ʿArbaʿīn al-Nawawiyyah fi ‘l-Aḥādīthi
‘l-Ṣaḥīḥati ‘l-Nabawiyyah, Beirut (1981), p. 78.
[7] Ibid., p. 43.
[8] Bulyāwī, Miṣbāḥ, p. 518.
[9] H. Yusuf, The Creed of Imam al-Ṭaḥāwī, USA (2007),
p. 74.
[10] ʿĀshiq, Tadhkiratu ‘l-Ṣāliḥīn, p. 64.
[11] F. ʿAṭṭār, Tadhkiratu ‘l-Awliyaʾ, Dehli (1985), p.
14.
[13] R. Raḥmān, 400 Aḥādīth Qudsiyah, Karachi (2011), p.
60.
[14] M. al-Tabrīzī, Mishkātu ‘l-Maṣābīḥ, Beirut (1985), p.
9.; A. Naʿīmī, Mirʾātu ‘l-Manājīḥ,
Gujrat (1990), pp. 24-27.
[15] Bulyāwī, Miṣbāḥ, p. 967.
[16] T. Pānī Pattī, Tafsīr Maẓharī, Karachi (1999), vol. 5,
pp. 337-338.
[17] The inspiration that is
received by a prophet and messenger is different to that of the inspiration a
spiritualist may receive. The former’s inspiration (waḥī) is considered as revelation and may even be considered law,
whereas in the latter’s case, the inspiration (ilhām) may or may not be perceived to be Divine. It could also be
the result of Satanic whisperings.
[18] Bulyāwī, Miṣbāḥ, p. 734.
[19] S. al-Taftazānī, Sharḥ ʿAqāʾidu ‘l-Nasafiyyah, Karachi
(2009), pp. 338-343.
[20] Ibid., p. 533.
[21] M. Aʿẓamī, Bahār-e-Sharīʿat, Lahore (2008), pp.
43-44.
[22] M. Ajmal, Imāmu ‘l-Awliyāʾ, Lahore (2012), p. 65.
[23] Pānī Pattī, Tafsīr Maẓharī, vol. 9, p. 34.
[24] Bulyāwī, Miṣbāḥ, p. 464.
[25] Yusuf, The Creed of Imam al-Ṭaḥāwī, p. 52.
[26] M. al-Jazarī, Ḥiṣn Ḥaṣīn, Lahore (1990), p. 67.
[27] A. al-Shaṭnūfī, Bahijatu ‘l-Asrār, Lahore (2000).
[28] Ajmal, Imāmu ‘l-Awliyā, pp. 82-83.
[29] A. al-Qushayrī, al-Risālatu ‘l-Qushayriyyah fi ʿIlmi ‘l-Taṣawwuf,
Lahore (2009), pp. 458-459.
[30] Ibid.
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